Health risk assessment of lead in dairy products from various environments in Egypt

Abstract

Milk and dairy products are nutritious foods that are beneficial to human health at all life stages and provide essential nutrients required by the body. However, despite their importance, these products are susceptible to contamination by toxic environmental pollutants, such as lead (Pb), originating from surrounding environmental sources. This study aimed to evaluate the potential health risks associated with Pb exposure in adults and children through the consumption of contaminated milk and dairy products from various locations in Egypt using estimated daily intake, target hazard quotient, and excess cancer risk metrics. The data indicated that the daily intake (DI) of Pb in the raw milk samples ranged from 131.6 to 557.9 μg in industrial areas, 107.7 to 456.6 μg in traffic areas, and 35.8 to 151.7 μg in rural areas. In contrast, the DI of Pb in sterilised milk ranged from 19.3 to 82.0 μg in industrial areas, 17.9 to 75.7 μg in traffic areas, and 16.0 to 67.8 μg in rural areas. For processed cheese, values ranging from 2.0 to 2.4, 2.5 to 2.9, and 2.4 to 2.8 μg were found across these areas, respectively. The mean DI values of Pb were 70.1, 59.7, and 11.5 μg for Domiati cheese samples and 112.2, 103.7, and 481.6 μg for Ras cheese from industrial, traffic, and rural areas, respectively. The measured health risk indices showed no significant risks associated with the consumption of the dairy products examined, except for raw milk, particularly when consumed in large quantities from industrial and traffic areas. Purchasing raw milk from contaminated industrial or traffic zones should be avoided to limit its consumption, particularly for children.